Mitophagy Pathway in Neurodegeneration

Pathway Overview

flowchart TD
    A["Healthy Mitochondria<br/>PINK1 Imported and Degraded"] --> B["Mitochondrial Damage<br/>Membrane Potential Loss"]
    B --> C["PINK1 Stabilizes on<br/>Outer Mitochondrial Membrane"]
    C --> D["PINK1 Autophosphorylation<br/>and Activates"]
    D --> E["PINK1 Phosphorylates<br/>Ubiquitin and Parkin"]
    E --> F["Parkin E3 Ligase<br/>Activated"]
    F --> G["Ubiquitination of<br/>OMM Proteins"]
    G --> H["Autophagy Receptors Bind<br/>Ub-Chains: OPTN, NDP52, NBR1"]
    H --> I["Receptors Link to<br/>LC3/GABARAP on Phagophore"]
    I --> J["Damaged Mitochondria<br/>Engulfed by Autophagosome"]
    J --> K["Fusion with<br/>Lysosome"]
    K --> L["Mitochondria<br/>Degraded and Recycled"]

    M["Receptor-Mediated:<br/>BNIP3, NIX, FUNDC1"] --> N["Direct LC3 Binding<br/>Independent of Parkin"]
    N --> I

    O["Mitochondrial Fusion:<br/>MFN1, MFN2, OPA1"] --> P["Mitochondrial Fission:<br/>DRP1"]
    P --> B

    style A fill:#0e2e10,stroke:#333
    style L fill:#0e2e10,stroke:#333
    style G fill:#0a1929,stroke:#333
    style I fill:#0a1929,stroke:#333
    style B fill:#3b1114,stroke:#333
    style F fill:#1a0a1f,stroke:#333
    style H fill:#3a3000,stroke:#333

Introduction

Mitophagy is a specialized form of autophagy^{1Autophagic degradation of mitochondria in cultured rat hepatocytes1998 · Biochem Mol Biol Int · PMID 9741574Open reference} that involves the selective degradation of damaged or dysfunctional mitochondria. This process is critical for maintaining mitochondrial quality control and cellular homeostasis, particularly in post-mitotic cells such as neurons that cannot dilute damaged organelles through cell division. The term “mitophagy” was first coined by Professor Yoshino Abe and colleagues in 1998, describing the sequestration of mitochondria into autophagosomes during nutrient deprivation^{1Autophagic degradation of mitochondria in cultured rat hepatocytes1998 · Biochem Mol Biol Int · PMID 9741574Open reference}.

Neurons exhibit unique vulnerabilities that make mitophagy particularly crucial for their survival. As highly energy-demanding cells, neurons rely heavily on mitochondrial function to meet their metabolic needs, producing approximately 90% of their ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. The brain, while comprising only 2% of body weight, consumes approximately 20% of the body’s total oxygen and energy resources. This high metabolic demand, combined with the long lifespan of neurons and their limited regenerative capacity, makes them exceptionally susceptible to mitochondrial dysfunction^{2Mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress in neurodegenerative diseases2006 · Nature · PMID 17065905Open reference}.

The importance of mitophagy in neuronal health is underscored by the fact that defective mitophagy has been directly implicated in the pathogenesis of numerous neurodegenerative disorders, including Parkinson’s disease^{3Parkinson's disease2022 · Nat Rev Dis Primers · PMID 36162623Open reference}, Alzheimer’s disease^{4Alzheimer's disease2022 · Nat Rev Dis Primers · PMID 36142350Open reference}, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis^{5Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis2021 · Nat Rev Dis Primers · PMID 34773482Open reference}. The accumulation of dysfunctional mitochondria is a hallmark feature observed in post-mortem brain tissue from patients with these disorders, suggesting that impaired mitophagy contributes to disease progression^{2Mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress in neurodegenerative diseases2006 · Nature · PMID 17065905Open reference}.

Mitochondrial dysfunction in neurodegeneration is characterized by several key features: impaired oxidative phosphorylation, increased production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), altered mitochondrial dynamics, and reduced ability to clear damaged mitochondria. These defects create a vicious cycle where accumulated mitochondrial damage further compromises cellular energy metabolism and increases oxidative stress, ultimately leading to neuronal death. The selective removal of damaged mitochondria through mitophagy represents a critical protective mechanism that prevents the accumulation of dysfunctional mitochondria and maintains neuronal viability.

Molecular Mechanisms

The PINK1-Parkin Pathway

The PINK1^{6PINK1 and Parkin: Molecular understanding of the pathway2024 · Nat Cell Biol · PMID 39358449Open reference}-Parkin^{7Parkin, a key player in Parkinson's disease pathogenesis: A review2025 · Int J Biol Macromol · PMID 40848780Open reference} pathway represents the most well-characterized mechanism of mitophagy induction in response to mitochondrial damage. This pathway is particularly significant in the context of neurodegenerative diseases, as mutations in both PINK1 (PTEN-induced kinase 1) and Parkin genes cause autosomal recessive Parkinson’s disease^{8Mutations in the parkin gene cause autosomal recessive juvenile parkinsonism1998 · Nature · PMID 9560156Open reference}.

Under normal conditions, PINK1 is constitutively imported into healthy mitochondria through the TOMM40^{1Autophagic degradation of mitochondria in cultured rat hepatocytes1998 · Biochem Mol Biol Int · PMID 9741574Open reference}0 (Translocase of Outer Mitochondrial Membrane 40) complex and degraded by proteases within the mitochondrial matrix. However, upon mitochondrial damage or loss of membrane potential, PINK1 fails to be imported and instead accumulates on the outer mitochondrial membrane^{1Autophagic degradation of mitochondria in cultured rat hepatocytes1998 · Biochem Mol Biol Int · PMID 9741574Open reference}1. The accumulation of PINK1 on the mitochondrial surface serves as the initial signal for mitophagy initiation.

Once stabilized on the outer mitochondrial membrane, PINK1 undergoes autophosphorylation and then phosphorylates both ubiquitin and the ubiquitin-like domain of Parkin. This phosphorylation event activates Parkin’s E3 ubiquitin ligase activity, leading to the ubiquitination of multiple outer mitochondrial membrane proteins^{1Autophagic degradation of mitochondria in cultured rat hepatocytes1998 · Biochem Mol Biol Int · PMID 9741574Open reference}2. The ubiquitination of these proteins serves as a “eat-me” signal for the autophagy machinery.

The selective recognition of ubiquitinated mitochondria is mediated by autophagy receptors that contain both ubiquitin-binding domains and LC3-interacting regions (LIRs). Key receptors involved in PINK1-Parkin-mediated mitophagy include OPTN^{1Autophagic degradation of mitochondria in cultured rat hepatocytes1998 · Biochem Mol Biol Int · PMID 9741574Open reference}3 (Optineurin), NDP52 (Nuclear Domain 10 Protein 2), and NBR1^{1Autophagic degradation of mitochondria in cultured rat hepatocytes1998 · Biochem Mol Biol Int · PMID 9741574Open reference}4 (Neighbor of Brca1 Gene 1). These receptors bridge the ubiquitinated mitochondria to the growing autophagosome by binding to LC3/GABARAP proteins on the phagophore membrane.

The OPTN^{1Autophagic degradation of mitochondria in cultured rat hepatocytes1998 · Biochem Mol Biol Int · PMID 9741574Open reference}5 protein plays a particularly important role in mitophagy, and mutations in the OPTN gene have been linked to both glaucoma and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis^{1Autophagic degradation of mitochondria in cultured rat hepatocytes1998 · Biochem Mol Biol Int · PMID 9741574Open reference}6. OPTN contains an ubiquitin-binding domain (UBD) and a microtubule-binding domain that may help in the transport of damaged mitochondria to perinuclear regions where lysosomal fusion occurs.

Receptor-Mediated Mitophagy

In addition to the PINK1-Parkin pathway, neurons can also utilize receptor-mediated mitophagy, which involves direct binding of mitochondrial outer membrane proteins to LC3/GABARAP proteins. This pathway can be activated independently of Parkin and is particularly important under certain physiological conditions.

BNIP3 and NIX (BNIP3L)

BNIP3 (BCL2/adenovirus E1B 19kDa protein-interacting protein 3) and its homolog NIX (BNIP3-like, also known as BNIP3L) are mitophagy receptors that contain LIR motifs and can directly initiate mitophagy by binding to LC3^{1Autophagic degradation of mitochondria in cultured rat hepatocytes1998 · Biochem Mol Biol Int · PMID 9741574Open reference}7. These proteins are BH3-only members of the Bcl-2 family and can be induced under hypoxic conditions or during erythroid cell maturation.

The BNIP3/NIX pathway is particularly important in certain neuronal populations and during specific stress conditions. BNIP3 expression can be induced by hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF-1α), making this pathway critical for mitochondrial quality control during periods of reduced oxygen availability. NIX has been shown to play essential roles in mitochondrial clearance during reticulocyte maturation, and dysregulation of this pathway may contribute to neuronal death in various pathological conditions^{1Autophagic degradation of mitochondria in cultured rat hepatocytes1998 · Biochem Mol Biol Int · PMID 9741574Open reference}8.

FUNDC1

FUNDC1 (FUN14 domain containing 1) is another outer mitochondrial membrane protein that functions as a mitophagy receptor. It contains a LIR motif that interacts with LC3, and its activity is regulated by phosphorylation. FUNDC1 is particularly sensitive to hypoxia and has been implicated in mitophagy induced by hypoxic conditions^{1Autophagic degradation of mitochondria in cultured rat hepatocytes1998 · Biochem Mol Biol Int · PMID 9741574Open reference}9. The regulation of FUNDC1 through post-translational modifications, including phosphorylation and ubiquitination, provides additional layers of control for this mitophagy pathway.

Mitochondrial Dynamics and Mitophagy

The process of mitophagy is intimately connected to mitochondrial dynamics, involving the continuous cycles of mitochondrial fusion and fission. Mitofusin 1 (MFN1) and Mitofusin 2 (MFN2)^{2Mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress in neurodegenerative diseases2006 · Nature · PMID 17065905Open reference}0 are GTPases that mediate outer mitochondrial membrane fusion, while OPA1 mediates inner membrane fusion. The dynamin-related protein 1 (DRP1) mediates mitochondrial fission, facilitating the segregation of damaged mitochondrial segments for removal^{2Mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress in neurodegenerative diseases2006 · Nature · PMID 17065905Open reference}1.

The PINK1-Parkin pathway actively regulates mitochondrial dynamics to facilitate mitophagy. Parkin-mediated ubiquitination of MFN2^{2Mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress in neurodegenerative diseases2006 · Nature · PMID 17065905Open reference}2 promotes its degradation, thereby inhibiting mitochondrial fusion and facilitating the segregation of damaged mitochondria^{2Mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress in neurodegenerative diseases2006 · Nature · PMID 17065905Open reference}3. This fission step is essential for the selective removal of damaged mitochondrial components while preserving functional mitochondrial networks.

The interplay between mitochondrial dynamics and mitophagy ensures that only damaged portions of the mitochondrial network are targeted for degradation. The recruitment of autophagy receptors to damaged mitochondria is facilitated by the fission process, which creates discrete mitochondrial fragments that can be engulfed by the autophagosome.

The Mitophagy Receptor Protein NBR1

NBR1^{2Mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress in neurodegenerative diseases2006 · Nature · PMID 17065905Open reference}4 is a selective autophagy receptor that participates in mitophagy alongside its well-established role in general autophagy. NBR1 contains an ubiquitin-binding domain and multiple LIR motifs, allowing it to recognize ubiquitinated mitochondria and deliver them to autophagosomes^{2Mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress in neurodegenerative diseases2006 · Nature · PMID 17065905Open reference}5. The cooperation between NBR1 and other receptors such as OPTN ensures robust mitophagy induction and efficient clearance of damaged mitochondria.

Role in Neurodegeneration

Parkinson’s Disease

The link between mitophagy and Parkinson’s disease^{2Mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress in neurodegenerative diseases2006 · Nature · PMID 17065905Open reference}6 represents one of the most compelling connections between mitochondrial quality control and neurodegeneration. The discovery that mutations in PINK1^{2Mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress in neurodegenerative diseases2006 · Nature · PMID 17065905Open reference}7 and PARKIN^{2Mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress in neurodegenerative diseases2006 · Nature · PMID 17065905Open reference}8 cause autosomal recessive Parkinson’s disease provided the first direct genetic evidence linking mitophagy to neurodegeneration^{2Mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress in neurodegenerative diseases2006 · Nature · PMID 17065905Open reference}9.

In sporadic Parkinson’s disease, multiple mechanisms appear to compromise mitophagy function. Mitochondrial complex I deficiency, a consistent finding in PD brains, may lead to increased mitochondrial damage that overwhelms the mitophagy system. Additionally, alterations in autophagy-lysosomal pathway proteins have been reported in PD patient brains, including decreased levels of Beclin-1 and LC3-II^{3Parkinson's disease2022 · Nat Rev Dis Primers · PMID 36162623Open reference}0.

The PINK1-Parkin pathway appears to be particularly important for the survival of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta, the region most vulnerable in Parkinson’s disease. These neurons have high metabolic demands and extensive axonal projections, requiring efficient mitochondrial turnover. Impairment of mitophagy in these neurons leads to the accumulation of dysfunctional mitochondria, increased oxidative stress, and ultimately neuronal death^{3Parkinson's disease2022 · Nat Rev Dis Primers · PMID 36162623Open reference}1.

Alpha-synuclein, whose aggregation is a hallmark of Parkinson’s disease, has been shown to directly inhibit mitophagy. Wild-type alpha-synuclein can bind to mitochondria and interfere with mitochondrial quality control mechanisms, while mutant forms of alpha-synuclein associated with familial PD show enhanced mitochondrial localization and increased detrimental effects^{3Parkinson's disease2022 · Nat Rev Dis Primers · PMID 36162623Open reference}2.

Alzheimer’s Disease

In Alzheimer’s disease^{3Parkinson's disease2022 · Nat Rev Dis Primers · PMID 36162623Open reference}3, mitochondrial dysfunction occurs early in disease pathogenesis and contributes to synaptic failure and neuronal death. Multiple studies have documented impaired mitophagy in AD brains, with reduced expression of mitophagy-related proteins and decreased autophagic clearance of mitochondria^{3Parkinson's disease2022 · Nat Rev Dis Primers · PMID 36162623Open reference}4.

The amyloid-beta peptide, the primary constituent of amyloid plaques in AD, has been shown to directly impair mitochondrial function and mitophagy. Amyloid-beta accumulation in mitochondria leads to reduced mitochondrial membrane potential, increased ROS production, and impaired mitophagy^{3Parkinson's disease2022 · Nat Rev Dis Primers · PMID 36162623Open reference}5. Additionally, tau pathology, the other hallmark of AD, has been associated with disrupted mitochondrial dynamics and transport.

Interestingly, the PINK1-Parkin pathway may be specifically impaired in Alzheimer’s disease. Studies have shown decreased PINK1 and Parkin expression in AD brains, along with reduced phosphorylation of Parkin and its substrates^{3Parkinson's disease2022 · Nat Rev Dis Primers · PMID 36162623Open reference}6. This impairment may contribute to the accumulation of damaged mitochondria observed in AD neurons.

The interplay between amyloid-beta and mitophagy creates a pathogenic cycle: amyloid-beta induces mitochondrial damage, while impaired mitophagy fails to clear damaged mitochondria, leading to further amyloid-beta production and aggregation. Therapeutic approaches aimed at enhancing mitophagy may therefore break this vicious cycle.

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis^{3Parkinson's disease2022 · Nat Rev Dis Primers · PMID 36162623Open reference}7 is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder affecting upper and lower motor neurons. Multiple genes linked to familial ALS encode proteins involved in autophagy and mitophagy, including OPTN, TBK1, and VCP^{3Parkinson's disease2022 · Nat Rev Dis Primers · PMID 36162623Open reference}8.

Mutations in the OPTN^{3Parkinson's disease2022 · Nat Rev Dis Primers · PMID 36162623Open reference}9 gene cause a subset of familial ALS, and functional studies have demonstrated that these mutations impair mitophagy. OPTN mutations associated with ALS show reduced binding to ubiquitinated mitochondria and decreased recruitment to damaged mitochondria^{4Alzheimer's disease2022 · Nat Rev Dis Primers · PMID 36142350Open reference}0. This defect leads to accumulation of dysfunctional mitochondria in motor neurons, contributing to the progressive neurodegeneration observed in ALS.

The TBK1 (TANK-binding kinase 1) gene, also linked to ALS, encodes a kinase that phosphorylates OPTN and other autophagy receptors, enhancing their activity. TBK1 mutations impair this phosphorylation event, compromising mitophagy efficiency^{4Alzheimer's disease2022 · Nat Rev Dis Primers · PMID 36142350Open reference}1. Similarly, mutations in the VCP (Valosin-containing protein) gene, which encodes an AAA+ ATPase involved in autophagosome maturation, cause ALS and frontotemporal dementia.

Motor neurons appear to be particularly dependent on efficient mitophagy due to their large size, high metabolic demands, and specialized architecture. The selective vulnerability of motor neurons in ALS may therefore reflect their heightened requirement for mitochondrial quality control.

Huntington’s Disease

Huntington’s disease is caused by CAG repeat expansion in the huntingtin (HTT) gene, leading to mutant huntingtin protein that accumulates in neurons and causes progressive neurodegeneration. Multiple studies have demonstrated impaired mitophagy in Huntington’s disease models and patient tissue^{4Alzheimer's disease2022 · Nat Rev Dis Primers · PMID 36142350Open reference}2.

Mutant huntingtin protein directly interferes with mitochondrial function and mitophagy through multiple mechanisms. It can sequester PINK1 and Parkin, preventing their recruitment to damaged mitochondria. Additionally, mutant huntingtin disrupts mitochondrial dynamics by altering the expression and localization of fission and fusion proteins^{4Alzheimer's disease2022 · Nat Rev Dis Primers · PMID 36142350Open reference}3.

The autophagy receptor FUNDC1 has been implicated in mitophagy deficits in Huntington’s disease. Studies have shown that FUNDC1 expression is reduced in HD models, and restoring FUNDC1 levels can improve mitophagy and neuronal survival^{4Alzheimer's disease2022 · Nat Rev Dis Primers · PMID 36142350Open reference}4. These findings suggest that multiple pathways converge to impair mitophagy in Huntington’s disease.

Therapeutic Targets

Small Molecule Activators of Mitophagy

The identification of compounds that enhance mitophagy has become a major focus for drug development in neurodegenerative diseases. Several classes of small molecules have shown promise in preclinical studies.

Urolithin A

Urolithin A is a gut microbiome-derived metabolite that has been shown to enhance mitophagy in cellular and animal models. It stimulates the clearance of defective mitochondria through a mechanism involving the inhibition of mitochondrial death pathway signaling^{4Alzheimer's disease2022 · Nat Rev Dis Primers · PMID 36142350Open reference}5. Clinical trials of urolithin A have demonstrated safety and tolerability in humans, with ongoing studies in neurodegenerative diseases.

NAD+ Precursors

Nicotinamide riboside (NR) and nicotinamide mononucleotide (NMN), precursors of NAD+, have shown beneficial effects on mitochondrial function and mitophagy. NAD+ levels decline with age and in neurodegenerative diseases, and restoration of NAD+ can enhance sirtuin activity and mitochondrial quality control^{4Alzheimer's disease2022 · Nat Rev Dis Primers · PMID 36142350Open reference}6.

Natural Compounds

Several natural compounds with antioxidant properties have been investigated for their mitophagy-enhancing effects. Resveratrol, found in red wine grapes, activates SIRT1 and enhances mitophagy through a PINK1-Parkin-dependent mechanism^{4Alzheimer's disease2022 · Nat Rev Dis Primers · PMID 36142350Open reference}7. Curcumin, the active compound in turmeric, has also been shown to promote mitophagy and reduce mitochondrial dysfunction in various models.

Gene Therapy Approaches

Gene therapy offers the potential to directly target mitophagy-related genes for neurodegenerative disease treatment.

PARK2 Gene Delivery

Viral vector-mediated delivery of the PARKIN gene has been explored in preclinical models of Parkinson’s disease. Studies in PINK1 knockout mice demonstrated that Parkin overexpression could restore dopaminergic neuron survival^{4Alzheimer's disease2022 · Nat Rev Dis Primers · PMID 36142350Open reference}8. However, the timing of intervention appears critical, as overexpression in established disease may have limited benefit.

Targeting Autophagy Receptors

Enhancing the expression or function of autophagy receptors such as OPTN and NBR1 represents another therapeutic strategy. Gene therapy approaches to increase OPTN expression have shown promise in cellular models of ALS^{4Alzheimer's disease2022 · Nat Rev Dis Primers · PMID 36142350Open reference}9.

Modulation of Mitochondrial Dynamics

Given the intimate connection between mitochondrial dynamics and mitophagy, targeting fission and fusion proteins has emerged as a therapeutic approach.

DRP1 Inhibitors

Mdivi-1, a selective inhibitor of DRP1, has been shown to reduce mitochondrial fission and improve mitochondrial function in models of Parkinson’s disease^{5Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis2021 · Nat Rev Dis Primers · PMID 34773482Open reference}0. However, the complete inhibition of fission may have adverse effects, as some fission is necessary for proper mitochondrial quality control.

MFN2 Activators

Small molecules that enhance MFN2 function or expression may promote mitochondrial fusion and improve overall mitochondrial quality. However, excessive fusion can also be detrimental, as it prevents the segregation of damaged mitochondrial components.

Clinical Implications

Biomarkers

The development of biomarkers for mitophagy is crucial for patient stratification and monitoring therapeutic responses. Several approaches are being investigated.

Mitochondrial DNA Copy Number

Alterations in mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) copy number have been observed in neurodegenerative diseases and may reflect compensatory responses to mitochondrial dysfunction. Elevated mtDNA copy number in peripheral blood cells has been reported in Parkinson’s disease patients^{5Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis2021 · Nat Rev Dis Primers · PMID 34773482Open reference}1.

Circulating Mitochondrial Proteins

Plasma levels of mitochondrial proteins, including mitochondrial DNA and specific mitochondrial lipids, are being evaluated as minimally invasive biomarkers. The release of mitochondrial components into circulation may reflect tissue-specific mitochondrial damage and impaired clearance.

Functional Assessments

Biochemical and functional assessments of mitophagy flux in patient-derived cells provide direct measures of mitophagy efficiency. The generation of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) from patient fibroblasts allows for detailed characterization of mitophagy in disease-relevant cell types^{5Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis2021 · Nat Rev Dis Primers · PMID 34773482Open reference}2.

Clinical Trials

Several clinical trials are currently investigating mitophagy-targeted therapies in neurodegenerative diseases.

Trials of NAD+ precursors, including nicotinamide riboside, are underway in Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease. These trials aim to evaluate the effects of NAD+ augmentation on mitochondrial function and clinical outcomes^{5Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis2021 · Nat Rev Dis Primers · PMID 34773482Open reference}3.

Urolithin A has progressed to clinical testing in various populations, including studies in older adults and patients with mild cognitive impairment. Preliminary results suggest improvements in mitochondrial biomarkers^{5Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis2021 · Nat Rev Dis Primers · PMID 34773482Open reference}4.

Gene therapy approaches for Parkinson’s disease targeting PINK1 or PARKIN have been explored in early-phase clinical trials. However, delivery to the appropriate brain regions and achieving sufficient expression levels remain technical challenges.

Challenges and Future Directions

Several challenges must be addressed to successfully translate mitophagy-based therapies to the clinic. The complexity of mitophagy regulation, with multiple parallel pathways, suggests that combination approaches targeting several mechanisms may be more effective than single-target interventions. Additionally, the timing of intervention may be critical, as mitophagy enhancement in early disease stages may be more beneficial than in established neurodegeneration.

The development of biomarkers that can predict treatment response and monitor disease progression will be essential for personalized therapeutic approaches. The identification of patient subgroups with specific mitophagy defects may enable targeted interventions.

Future research directions include the exploration of age-related changes in mitophagy and how these may contribute to late-onset neurodegeneration. The development of more sophisticated models, including patient-derived neurons and brain organoids, will provide better platforms for drug screening and mechanistic studies.

See Also

• Parkinson’s disease

• Alzheimer’s disease

• Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

• PINK1 gene

• Parkin gene

• TOMM40 protein

• OPTN protein

• NBR1 protein

• MFN2 protein

External Links

• PubMed

• KEGG Pathways